When can ecological speciation be detected with neutral loci?

In this paper we test the statistical power of using neutral markers to infer ecological speciation. We find that this method is powerful only in a limited number of cases, namely when migration is intermediate and selection is strong.

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Sex trips death in the dance of speciation

The following is a press release from The American Naturalist.

Darwin argued that the origin of new species is driven by adaptation to different environments and recent research has confirmed his intuition and given the process its current name "ecological speciation". At the same time, it has become increasingly apparent that different environments do not always cause ecological speciation. Some other forces must therefore constrain the evolution of reproductive barriers that irrevocably sunder one species into several. Jacques Labonne of INRA in France and Andrew Hendry of McGill University in Canada investigate one of these constraining forces by developing simulation models of population divergence in Trinidadian guppies.

Trinidadian guppies are caught up in a perpetual tug of war between sex and death. Colorful males are often favored by females during mating (top image), whereas those same males are thought to be more susceptible to predators (bottom image). As a result, guppy populations above waterfalls, which evolve without dangerous predators, often have more colorful males than those below waterfalls evolving with dangerous predators. Given this evidence of adaptation to different environments, the theory of ecological speciation would predict that the two types of guppies (low-predation and high-predation) should be on their way to speciation, which is not the case. Hendry suggests that "maybe colorful low-predation males moving into high-predation populations pay the price of imminent death, but until then, reap the benefits of more sex." The authors' simulation models confirm that the end result of this conflict between sex and death can be little progress toward ecological speciation. This study illustrates the importance of considering multiple factors that promote and constrain progress toward speciation.

For more details see: Labonne, J., and A.P. Hendry. Natural selection can giveth and taketh away reproductive barriers: models of population divergence in guppies. American Naturalist. To be published in July issue.

Spatiotemporal variation in natural selection

Forthcoming in Evolution

Weese, D.J., S.P. Gordon, A.P. Hendry, and M.T. Kinnison. Spatiotemporal variation in linear natural selection on body color in wild guppies (Poecilia reticulata)

Despite a number of good examples of the ecological consequences of ongoing evolutionary change (i.e., contemporary evolution), establishing the generality of these eco-evolutionary interactions remains an important challenge. The relevance of such effects in any given situation will depend, at least partly, on the temporal dynamism of the evolutionary mechanisms (selection, gene flow, mutation) that are functionally linked to ecological processes. Testing for contemporary evolution has been facilitated by the recent development of analytical methods that estimate the strength and pattern of natural selection in wild populations using multiple regressions to predict individual fitness from trait values (the slopes of these regressions are called selection coefficients). By replicating these measurements in time, we can reveal the temporal scale at which eco-evolutionary effects are likely to be important.

Along with my co-authors, I used a series of mark-recapture experiments to investigate variation in natural selection on body color in Trinidadian guppies. Among-population variability in male colour is predicted to reflect a balance between the benefits of colour (attracting females) and the costs of colour (attracting predators). consistent with this idea, our natural selection coefficients were negative, colourful guppies generally had lower survival than did drab guppies. However, we also found that selection in this system is highly variable both spatially (among populations) and temporally (within the same population). Surprisingly, this variation was not consistently associated with the presence of dangerous guppy predators. These findings suggest complicated and dynamic interactions among sexual selection, natural selection, predation, and phenotypic evolution in this system. These types of interactions operating on very fine spatiotemporal scales suggest that eco-evolutionary dynamics may be commonplace, and relevant to ecological processes occurring in contemporary time.

Phenotypic plasticity and adaptation

I am interested in the role of phenotypic plasticity in adaptation to different environments. Divergent selection can result in adaptive genetic divergence among populations. However, individuals can also adapt through a plastic response; i.e. the environment might have a direct impact on the phenotype without influencing genetic change. The relative contribution of each (genetic vs. plastic adaptation) should be related to the level of dispersal and gene flow among selective environments. Gene flow can constrain adaptive genetic divergence, and therefore plasticity might be favoured under high gene flow scenarios. If heritable variation for plasticity occurs in a meta-population, I predict that plasticity might evolve in response to gene flow. At the same time, plasticity might permit increased dispersal and gene flow among environments.

During my doctoral studies at McGill, I developed a conceptual framework for understanding the above pathways. I then tested some of the framework's predictions in an empirical system: an African cichlid fish from high-oxygen rivers and adjacent low-oxygen swamps. I found that morphological plasticity, in response to dissolved oxygen concentration, was high overall in this species, but that plasticity was higher at locations where dispersal between environments should also be higher. I infer that plasticity might have evolved in response to gene flow between oxygen environments, but more studies are needed to determine causality.

The conceptual framework is published in the following article. The empirical studies are currently in review.
Crispo, E. (2008) Modifying effects of phenotypic plasticity on interactions among natural selection, adaptation and gene flow. Journal of Evolutionary Biology 21:1460-1469

Latest news: I successfully defended my PhD dissertation yesterday!

What are eco-evolutionary dynamics?

Evolution is obviously driven by ecological differences: think of the adaptive radiation of Darwin’s finches. Just as obviously, ecological processes are influenced by evolution: ecosystems depend on the oxygen produced following the evolution of photosynthesis. Less obvious is how these interactions play out on the short time scales most relevant to conservation and management. Do ecological changes (e.g., invasive species, climate change) drive appreciably evolutionary change over years or decades (i.e., “contemporary evolution”)? Does any such evolution influence ecological variables (population dynamics, community composition, ecosystem function) on similar time scale? These potential interactions between ecology and evolution, as shown in the figure, represent the growing field of eco-evolutionary dynamics.

Many studies have shown that ecological changes cause phenotypic changes in natural populations (eco-to-evo). Examples include species introduced to new environments, native species responding to introduced species, populations exposed to harvesting or pollution, and populations facing climate change. Existing work has shown that the phenotypic changes can be substantial, particularly when humans are involved. What isn’t known generally is just how much of this phenotypic change is the result of evolutionary change versus phenotypic plasticity. Even less is known about how these contemporary phenotypic changes then influence ecological variables on similar time frames (evo-to-eco) – but some nice examples can be provided.

Populations: Phenotypic changes from one year to the next clearly influence population size in ungulates. The genetic contribution to this phenotypic change is not known, whereas a study of butterflies has documented effects of genetic change on population sizes. What remains to be determined is just how common these effects are, and how important they are relative to traditional “ecological” effects (e.g., rainfall or temperature). In addition, it isn’t clear under which conditions these population dynamical effects of evolution can actually save natural populations from extinction (i.e., evolutionary rescue).

Communities: Genetic and phenotypic differences between individual plants have been shown to have noteworthy effects on arthropod communities. Similarly, genetically-based phenotypic differences between fish populations have strong influences on aquatic macro-invertebrate communities. What remains to be determined is, again, how common these effects are and, also, how year-to-year changes in these genes and traits (as opposed to the currently-studied static differences) influence those communities.

Ecosystems: In the same plants and fish studied for community effects (above), genetic and phenotypic differences have been shown to influence ecosystem variables such as decomposition rates, dissolved organic material, light attenuation, and primary productivity. Since the study systems are the same as above, what remains to be discovered is also the same. It will also be interesting to know how often these ecosystem effects of evolution fall into the category of “ecosystem services” that have become so integral to conservation efforts.

The above listing highlights a few specific examples of how evolutionary change might influence ecological variables on short time scales. In addition to the specific uncertainties listed above, some additional general ones come to mind. How often do evolutionary effects on communities and ecosystems flow through the effects of evolution on population dynamics (indirect effects – red to black arrows in the figure) versus changes in the traits themselves (direct effects – red arrows only)? Do the effects of evolutionary change on ecological processes decrease from population to community to ecosystem variables? How often do true feedbacks occur – that is an ecological process drives evolution (green arrows) that then alters that same ecological process (red arrows) and so on? Eco-evolutionary dynamics is an area ripe for future work. A special journal issue on eco-evolutionary dynamics: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/364/1523

Thesis submission

On February first Xavier submitted his thesis "The driving factors of ecological speciation and their interactions" in which he looked at the effects of gene flow on local adaptation, and reciprocally, the effects of local adaptation on gene flow.

Evolution revealed by resurrecting historical resting eggs

Recently published in the January issue of Evolutionary Ecology!

Derry, A.M., S.E. Arnott, and P.T. Boag. 2010. Evolutionary shifts in copepod acid tolerance in an acid-recovering lake indicated by resurrected resting eggs. Evolutionary Ecology 24: 133-145.
http://www.springerlink.com/content/668651t1247q3v18/fulltext.pdf

Long-lived resting eggs of zooplankton are an ecological and evolutionary reservoir that can impact population and community responses to environmental change in lake ecosystems.
I investigated if adaptive shifts in copepod acid tolerance had arisen over a century of environmental change in an acid-recovering lake by resurrecting resting eggs dating from the late 1800s to present. My results suggest that copepods underwent shifts in acid tolerance following both anthropogenic acidification and pH recovery. Further, I found evidence to suggest that maternal effects (the effects of female body condition on the fitness of their offspring) can have an important role for the fitness of older zooplankton genotypes, irrespective of egg age, when historic resting eggs are given an opportunity to hatch into contemporary communities. Adaptive responses through time are important to consider because of their potential to influence community-level interactions in ecosystems recovering from anthropogenic disturbance.

Ben and I are planning to do some individual-based modelling to learn further about the effects of stochastic hatching from historical resting egg banks on contemporary evolution to environmental change.